Correct usage of Conjunctions(with examples)

     Correct usage of Conjunctions

a. 'Except' is not now used as a conjunction equivalent to unless.

Example:(1 one is wrong,2 one is correct)

1. She shall not come except you need her.
2. She shall not come unless you need her.

b. The adverb 'like' is often wrongly used as a conjunction instead of 'like as' or 'as'.

Example:
She dances like her mother does.
She dances as her mother does.

c. 'Scarcely' should be followed by 'when' and not 'than'.

Example:
Scarcely had I completed the homework, than my friends came running.
Scarcely had I completed the homework, when my friends came running.

d. The phrase 'seldom or ever' is meaningless. We should say 'seldom or never'.

Example:
Such people seldom or ever believe what you say.
Such people seldom or never believe what you say.
          e. While using correlative conjunctions, such as 'either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also,'ensure that they are followed by the same part of speech.

Example:
She not only lost her reputation, but also her money.
She lost not only her reputation, but also her money.

f. 'Directly' should not be used as a conjunction where 'as soon as' would in every way be better.

Example:
Directly the class was over, the students rushed out.
As soon as the class was over, the students rushed out.

g. 'No sooner' is followed by 'than', and not by 'but'.

Example:
No sooner did the class get over, but the students rushed out.
No sooner did the class get over, than the students rushed out.
     h. 'Neither' is followed by 'nor' and not by 'or'.

Example:
He accompanied neither his mother or his father.
He accompanied neither his mother nor his father.


Additional information for correct usage of Conjunctions:
Mistakes are often committed in case of positioning certain conjunctions like 'not only...but also'. These 'not only' and 'but also' must be placed immediately before the words to be joined. Remember that a conjunction always connects the words of the same part of speech (e.g. n-n, pro-pro, v-v, adj-adj, adv-adv) and of the same rank.

Observe the samples below:

Not only John but also Jack is intelligent (n-n).
The dog bit not only me but also him (pro-pro).
She not only sings but also dances (v-v).
He is not only intelligent but also industrious (adj-adj).
You have to speak not only loudly but also lucidly (adv-adv).
   
   
   
      2. Mistakes are common in correlating some of the conjunctions. Observe the following correlations and the examples.

'though' is followed by 'yet', (not : but)
'such' by 'as/that' 
'so' by 'that'

Example:
Though she is rich, yet she is not proud (not : but).
You are such a good orator that the audience simply gets carried away.
This year it is so cold that we cannot move about after five in the evening.

3. 'Unless' means 'if not' thus another 'not' with 'unless' is excessive.

Example:
Unless you do not have patience, you may never finish knitting the sweater.
Unless you have patience, you may never finish knitting the sweater.

In the same way 'until' which expresses time cannot include another 'not' :

'I did not ask him until he did not return my book'.
'I did not ask him until he returned my book.'

     4. Every conjunction has its specific function . For example 'that' is to state something, 'if' to express condition; similarly 'since', 'as' and 'for' are often used instead of 'because' which indicates cause of these 'because' and 'since' are strong enough to express cause while 'as' and 'for' are weak to express the same.

Example:
Nobody complained because everyone was satisfied.
She needs house help as she has been ill.
We ought to be good to others, for we are human beings.
Since he is poor, I help him.

5. The conjunction 'while' indicates only continuous action and 'when' a definite as well as continuous action.

Example:
She was reading while we were playing.
When we reached there, it was raining.

     6. Either 'how' or 'when' should connect the verb 'know' and its following infinitive : as,

He does not know to convince customers
He does not know how to convince customers

7. The conjunction 'lest' (= that not) must be followed by 'should', not by 'might'.

Example:   
Run fast lest you should miss the bus (not : might).
-Otherwise the above is simply accepted : as,
Run fast lest you miss the bus (without 'should').
Hold him tight lest he runs away.

Note: The expression 'lest' is not commonly used today.

8. When 'as if' is used to express pretension, 'were' is used with all persons, singular and plural.

Example:
He feels as if he were the greatest.
Don't command us as if you were the boss here.

9. Correct Order of Words: The following is the usual order of words in an English sentence:

a. The subject usually comes before the verb.

Example:
Rama killed Ravana.

b. The object usually comes after the verb.

Example:
Rama killed Ravana.

c. When there is an indirect object and also a direct object, the indirect precedes the direct.

Example:
Give me your pen.

d. When the adjective is used attributively it comes before the noun, which it qualifies.

Example:
I like the transparent pen with the sharp nib.
She is a beautiful woman.

e. When the adjective is used predicatively, it comes after the noun.

Example:
Hari is asleep.
The teacher became angry.

f. The adjective phrase comes immediately after the noun.

Example:
The tips of the pens are made of fine fibre.

g. The adverb is generally placed close to the word, which it modifies.

Example:
The child never cries.
Jill is a rather lucky girl.

Note: When an adverb is intended to modify the sentence as a whole, it is placed at the beginning of a sentence.

Example:
Certainly they couldn't have succeeded in the task.

h. All qualifying clauses are placed as close as possible to the words which they qualify.

Example:
The dog that barks does not bite.
Those who wish for success should not be lazy.
     Note: It is essential to place all qualifying words, phrases and clauses as near as possible to the words to which they refer.

10. Question Tags: When we converse with people, we sometimes make a statement and ask for confirmation. Ex: "That is an easy question, isn't it?" The second part of this (isn't it?) is called a Question Tag.

Note: The subject of a question tag is always a pronoun; a noun should never be used.

Note: The sentence pattern for a question tag is as follows:

a. If the statement is positive: auxiliary + n't + subject.

Example:
It is nice, isn't it?
He is honest, isn't he?
She is beautiful, isn't she?
They have come, haven't they?
I am lucky, aren't I?

     b. If the statement is negative: auxiliary + subject.

Example:
It is not nice, is it?
He is not honest, is he?
She is not beautiful, is she?
They have not come, have they?
I am not lucky, am I?

Additional information about Question Tags:

If the statement is positive, the question tag will be negative, and vice versa.
The components of a tag question are just the subject and the verb of the statement.
The subject of a tag question is always a pronoun, never a noun.
Only an auxiliary verb, not a main verb, must go into a question tag.
The 'not' in a negative tag question should be contracted into "n't" and added to the auxiliary preceding it.

The tag question 'isn't it?' must be sparingly used, for a question tag must necessarily agree with its statement in subject, number, verb and tense.

Correct usage of Prepositions(with examples)

     Correct usage of Prepositions

a. Sometimes a necessary preposition is omitted.

Example:
Did she influence you with words or actions?
Did she influence you with words or with actions?

b. 'In' is used with names of countries and large towns; 'at' is more often used when speaking of small towns and villages.

Example:(2 one is correct,1 one is wrong)

1. Globarena is in Jubilee Hills at Hyderabad.
2. Globarena is at Jubilee Hills in Hyderabad.

1. She is at Australia.
2. She is in Australia.

c. 'On' is often used in speaking of things at rest, and 'upon' is used of things in motion.

Example:

1. She sat upon the wall.
2. She sat on the wall.

1. She jumped on the wall.
2. She jumped upon the wall.

     d. 'With' often denotes the instrument, and 'by' denotes the agent.

Example:
Ravana was killed by Rama with an arrow.

e. 'In' before a noun denoting a period of time, means 'at the end of' 'within' means
'before the end of'.

Example:
We shall come back in an hour.
We shall come back within an hour.
f. The use of a preposition at the end of a sentence is awkward and is admissible only when it combines with a preceding intransitive verb to form a compound transitive verb.

Example:
The Guru dislikes being talked about.
Such a failure need not be wondered at.

Note: When the object of the preposition is the relative pronoun 'that', the preposition is always placed at the end.

Example:
This is the book that you asked for.
That is the incident we were wondering about.


Note: The preposition is frequently placed at the end when the object is an interrogative pronoun or a relative pronoun.

Example:
What have you been staring at?
This is the incident (which) I was telling you about.

g. 'In' and 'at' are used in speaking of things at rest; 'to' and 'into' are used in speaking of things in motion.

Example:
She is at school.
She is at the top of the stairs.
She ran to school.
She jumped onto the couch.

h. 'Till' is used for 'time' and 'to' is used for place.

Example:
We were discussing till 10 pm yesterday.
The group of thieves ran to the end of the street.

i. 'Since' is used before a noun or phrase denoting some point of time, and is preceded by a verb in some perfect tense.

Example:
Since the last tennis game my father has been winning continuously.
Since I was a small child, I dreamt of making it big.

Correct usage of the Adverb & Time and Action:

Time and Action:

1. For an action which begins at a point of time in the past, is taking place in the present, and is likely to continue in future, the present perfect continuous (have/has + been + ing form) is used. The prepositions since and 'for' are associated with this tense. 'Since' indicates point of time and 'for' period of time.

Example:
It has been raining since morning.
We have been waiting for you for two hours.

    

2. To show the sequence of two past actions, the earlier action has to be expressed in past perfect (had + past participle) and the subsequent action in simple past. The two actions are often joined by 'when....already', 'after' or 'before' etc.

Example:
I had known it before he told me.

He reached home after we had slept.

An unfulfilled post conditional action should be expressed as follows:

'If you had come earlier, you would have met him.'
                            Or
'Had you come earlier, you would have met him.'

'If we had walked faster, we would not have missed the bus,'
                                Or
'Had we walked faster, we would not have missed the bus.'

In the above examples, you may have noticed that past perfect (had + past participle) has been used in the 'if - past' while 'would + have + past participle' has been used in the main part of the sentence.

4. A probable future conditional action has to be expressed as:

'If you study well, I will buy you a bicycle.'
'If it does not rain, we shall go shopping.'

     Here the 'if - part' contains simple present and the main part consists of shall/will/can/may + bare infinitive.

5. Usually in a sentence if the main clause is put in the past tense, the subordinate clause will also be put in the past tense : as,

He said that he could not attend college owing to illness.

In spite of this there are certain exceptions violating this understanding of tense. Notice the following:

even if a main clause is in the past tense, its subordinate clause need not be put in the past tense whenever:

a universal truth is to be expressed.
'than' is a component of the subordinate clause.

Example:   
Our teacher said that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. (not : rose ; set)
He believed you more than he believes everyone else.


     Correct usage of the Adverb

a. Adverbs should be placed in a sentence so as to make it quite clear which word or words they are intended to modify. So, usually adverbs are used next to the word or words they modify.

Example:
She is a very beautiful girl.

b. The adverbs 'ever, never, scarcely, ever,' are often misplaced.

Example:

1. She is the most remarkable lady I ever remember to have met.
2. She is the most remarkable lady I remember to have ever met.

c. Adjectives should not be used for Adverbs.

Example:

1. She completed the work quicker than I expected.
2. She completed the work more quickly than I expected.

1. You will pay dear for your mistakes.
2. You will pay dearly for your mistakes.

                                                         
   

     Note: 'First' being itself an adverb, does not need the 'ly' that is frequently added.

d. 'Else' should be followed by 'but.'

Example:

1. That is nothing else than love.
2. That is nothing else but love.

e. Except colloquially, 'so' as an adverb of degree must not be used without a correlative.

Example:

1. She appears so weak.
2. She appears very weak.

1. The weather is so uncertain.
2. The weather is very uncertain.

1. He feels so lonely.
2. He feels very lonely.

     f. The adverb 'too' means 'more than enough' and should not be used instead of 'very' or 'much'.

Example:
The news is very good to be true.
The news is too good to be true.

This task is very much for anyone to complete in an hour.
This task is too much for anyone to complete in an hour.

g. 'of course' is often loosely used for 'certainly, undoubtedly'. But it should actually be used to denote a natural or an inevitable consequence.

Example:
Do you work hard? Of course I do.
Certainly, I do.

h. As a general rule, 'only' should be placed immediately before the word it is intended to modify.

Example:
I scold him only when he deserves it.
He solved only two problems.
Only Ajith passed the exam.
   
      Note: In spoken English, 'only' is usually put before the verb; the required meaning is obtained by stressing the word which the  'only' modifies.

Example:
I only scold him when he deserves it.
He only solved two problems.
Ajith only passed the exam.

i. Two negatives nullify each other's effect. So, two negatives should not be used in the same sentence unless we wish to make an affirmation.

Example:

1. They have not received none.
2. They have not received any.

1. No one scarcely believes in god men nowadays.
2. Scarcely anyone believes in god men nowadays.

1. She couldn't find it nowhere.
2. She couldn't find it anywhere.

1. We haven't got no instructions for doing the work.
2. We haven't got any instructions for doing the work.

     j. 'Ever' should not be misused for 'never.'

Example:

1. We seldom or ever go to the movies.
2. We seldom or never go to the movies.

1. This method is seldom or ever used to solve the problem.
2. This method is seldom or never used to solve the problem.

Note: 'Seldom or never' and 'seldom if ever' are both correct; but 'seldom or ever' is incorrect.

k. 'Never' should not be used for 'not'

Example:

1. Godse was never born in India.
2. Godse was not born in India.

1. I had a meeting with them, but they never referred to the matter.
2. I had a meeting with them, but they did not ever refer to the matter.

     l.'That' should not be used instead of 'so' as an adverb.

Example:

1. I was that tired that I immediately slept.
2. I was so tired that I immediately slept.

m. With Present Participles used as Adjectives, the adverb 'very' is used; with Past Participles, the adverb 'much' is used.

Example:

1. That is much intoxicating.
2. That is very intoxicating.

1. She was very inconvenienced.
2. She was much inconvenienced.

Note: A few Past Participles take 'very' before them.

Example:

1. They are much pleased to hear this.
2. They are very pleased to hear this.

1. We felt much happy.
2. We felt very happy

      n. 'Quite' should not be used in the sense of 'very' or 'to a considerable degree'.

Example:

1. We are quite sorry to hear the problems you are facing.
2. We are very sorry to hear the problems you are facing.

Additional information for correct usage of Adverbs:

1. The adverbs 'scarcely' and 'hardly' must be followed by 'when', not 'than'.

Example:
Scarcely had we known him when he met with an accident. (not : than).
The match had hardly begun when it began to rain (not : than).

2. Unlike 'scarcely and hardly', 'no sooner' is followed by 'than', not 'when'. In this, the first action is put in the past perfect (had + past participle) and the second in the simple past.

Example:   
No sooner had the train started than we got into it (not : when).
He had no sooner left the room than he was asked to return (not : when).

     3. 'Very' has to be used with adjectives and adverbs in the positive degree, and with present participle (i.e., - ing forms) used as adjectives (e.g. interesting).

Example:   
1. He spoke in a very polite manner. (not much)
-in positive degree

2. It is a very interesting story (not much)
-with present participle

Whereas 'much' has to go with adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree, and with past participles.

Example:
1. Today he is much better than (he was) yesterday (not very).
-in comparative degree

2. We are much worried about your health (not very).
-with past participles

Correct usage of Verbs:(With examples)

Correct usage of Verbs:

a. The subject of the sentence should not be left without a verb.

Example:(1 one is wrong, 2 one is correct)

1. Those who have been affected most by the change, let them speak.
2. Those who have been affected most by the change should speak.

b. In a compound sentence a single verb can be made to work for two subjects, only when the form of the verb allows it.

Example:   
Not a voice was heard, not a sound.

1. Her hardwork was meaningless, her efforts useless.
2. Her hard work was meaningless, her efforts useless.

c. When there is only one auxiliary to two principal verbs, it should be such that it may be correctly associated with both.

Example:

1. Five students have joined the course and one has been dropped out.
2. Five students have joined the course and one has dropped out.

   
      d. An infinitive should be in the present tense unless it represents action prior to that of the governing verb.

Example:

1. I should have liked to have joined the programme.
2. I should have liked to join the programme.

e. A present participle should not be used to express an action, which is not contemporaneous with the action of the principal verb.

Example:

1. He took five minutes to climb each floor, reaching the top floor in forty minutes.
2. He took five minutes to climb each floor, and reached the top floor in forty minutes.

f. The Subjunctive Mood is sometimes wrongly used for the Indicative. When the statement introduced by 'if' or 'though' is an actual fact, or what is assumed as a fact, the proper Mood to be used is the Indicative and not the Subjunctive. The Subjunctive is correctly used in the following sentences:

Example:

1. If he were you, he should agree.
2. If she were here, she would praise me.

     g. A verb should agree with its subject, and not with the complement.

Example:
His wants is but a handful.
His wants are but a handful.

1. The meetings is a matter of utmost importance.
2. The meetings are a matter of utmost importance.

h. Two auxiliaries can be used with one principal verb, only when the form of the principal verb is appropriate to both the auxiliaries.

Example:
She never has, and never will, take such decisions.
She has never taken such decisions, and never will.

i. The verbs 'lay' and 'lie' should be distinguished carefully. The verb 'lay' is transitive and is always followed by an object; the verb 'lie' is intransitive and cannot have an object.

Example:
Let them lie there.
We lay under the banyan tree.
Lay the baby down to sleep.
She laid the file on the desk.
The duck has laid an egg.

     j. One common mistake that is usually committed is to leave the Participle without proper agreement or with no agreement at all.

Example:
Walking down the road, a car hit him.
While he was walking down the road, a car hit him.

Being very hot, I couldn't drink the coffee immediately.
It being very hot, I couldn't drink the coffee immediately.
(Better still - The coffee was very hot so I couldn't drink it immediately.)

Note: In certain circumstances like the following, the usage is permitted.

Example:
Taking his skills into consideration, he should aim for something higher.

     k. The pronoun governing a Gerund should be put in the Possessive case.

Example:

1. What is the purpose of she going there?
2. What is the purpose of her going there?

1. It is of no use you saying so.
2. It is of no use your saying so.

1. Can you please forgive me saying so?
2. Can you please forgive my saying so?

Note: The noun governing a Gerund should also be put in the Possessive case, with 's, if it is of such a kind as to take that inflection, and if it is not too far removed from the Gerund.

Example:
They were unprepared for the umpire's comments.
I have no memory of Ravi's explaining the problem to me.

     Additional information for the correct usage of the Verb:

1. It is true that an adjective describes a noun whereas an adverb explains a verb, an adjective and another adverb. There are, however, certain verbs which allow only adjectives to explain them. They are look, remain, feel, sound, taste, smell, etc.

He looks innocent, don't believe him (not innocently).
She hardly felt sore about not being invited to dinner (not : sorely).

2. Note the following cases and use only singular verb after them.

- if many a is the subject in a sentence.
- if the number of is the subject in a sentence.
- if two singular nouns jointly convey a sense.
- after more than one though it carries a plural sense.
- with a plural subject denoting quantity or a definite amount.
- if each or every precedes two singular subjects joined by 'and'.

Example:
Many a student of mine has gone abroad (Many students of mine have gone abroad).
The number of thefts in the city now is very low.
Bread and butter is not enough for me now.
More than one tiger has died in the zoo till now this year.
Five thousand rupees suffices for the trip.
Every boy and every girl in this section is meritorious.


     3. 'A great many' takes a plural noun and a plural verb with it.

Example:
A great many fans have gathered to see him.
A great many students will stand by me if I ask.

4. More about verb - subject Agreement:

if two subjects are joined by 'as well as', 'along with', 'together with', 'no less than', 'in addition to', 'with', 'not', etc, the verb will always agree with the first subject :

My uncle (together) with his family is joining us for supper this evening. (not : are).
If the subjects are joined by 'or', or 'nor', the verb will always agree with the nearest subject to it : as,

You, he nor I am suitable for her. (not : are)


      in case of relative clauses, the verb has to agree with the antecedent but not with the relative pronoun (who, which, that, etc) :

It is Mr. David that looks after budgeting activity in the company.

- a verb will have to agree with a subject but not with the subject complement : as,

Two fours are eight. But four and four is also eight!

- In a sentence having apposition, the verb must agree with the real subject but not with the apposition restricted between commas :

Dad, I, your son, am going to look after you, do not worry about anything.

     4. An infinitive (e.g. to see) often indicates 'purpose' while a gerund i.e., 'an - ing form' (e.g. seeing) often denotes cause.

Example:   
1. He has come to see you once before leaving for Paris (Why has he came to see you).
2. 'You are always scolded for lying to me', said my mother.

5. A full infinitive (to infinitive) not a gerund has to go after the verbs : decide, plan, expert, want, ask, request, fail, learn, promise, hope, agree, try, refuse, tell, order, allow, etc.

Example:
1. The manager has asked him to wait for a while (not : waiting).
2. He tried enough to get information from me, but I did not allow him to learn it (not : getting; learning).

However, a gerund, not an infinitive, goes in case of these verbs : stop, enjoy, remember, avoid, finish, mind, practice, risk, like, excuse; also after : insist on, object to, prevent from, succeed in, think of, look forward to, to be + used/accustomed to, etc.

Example:
Have you finished reading this book? (not : (to) read).
We are not accustomed to getting up early (not : get).

     6. There are certain verbs which admit only a bare infinitive i.e., an infinitive without 'to' before it. They are : see, hear, notice, let, make, dare, need, etc., and also after : had better, would rather, etc.

Example:   
I noticed that the girl bit the boy (not : to bite).
We would rather walk than wait for the bus (not : to walk).

7. Verbs like 'appoint', 'elect', 'call', 'consider', 'think' should not be followed by 'as' whereas 'regard', 'describe' and 'think of' can be.

Example:
They consider me his son (not : as his son).
I regard your suggestion is worth considering (not simply :suggestion worth considering).

     8. Every verb cannot permit every conjunction to go with it, for example 'doubt' takes 'if or whether' but not 'that' after it.

Example:

1. Don't doubt that I am all right
2. Don't doubt whether I am all right (or not)

Correct usage of the Articles (with best examples)

Some other words of this kind are: absolute, annual, chief, circular, complete, entire, extreme, excellent, full, impossible, right, round, unique, universal, whole, etc.

a. In general, the Article is used before a Common noun, singular number.

Example:
He is a Ravi.(wrong)
He is Ravi.(correct)

He is doctor.
He is a doctor.

b. 'A' and 'an' are used depending on the sound.

i. 'An' is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound.

Example:
an elephant, an umbrella, an apple, an hour, an honest girl.

ii. 'A' is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound.

Example:
a boy, a square, a university, a useful strategy, a one-rupee coin.

     iii. 'An' is often used before words beginning with 'h' and not accented on the first syllable.

Example:
an honour, an hour.

However 'a' is used where 'h' is pronounced as in:
a hotel, a hospital, a hostel etc..

c. The Definite Article 'the' is used

i. When we speak of a particular person or thing, or someone or something already referred to or known to the speaker.

Example:
Let us go to the party.
I like the girl.
The movie we saw was very humorous.

ii. When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole class.

Example:
A camel is the ship of the desert.(1)
The camel is the ship of the desert.(2)

A lion is the king of the forest.1
The lion is the king of the forest. 2


     iv. Before common nouns which are names of things unique of their kind.

Example:
The sun, the earth, the moon, the sky, etc.

v.  With Superlatives.

Example:
Sunny is the most brilliant student in the class.
Jenny is the most beautiful girl in the colony.

vi. Before an adjective when the noun is understood.

Example:
The lucky are always the winners.
The rich always look down on the poor.

vii. Before a noun (with emphasis), to give the force of a superlative.

Example:
He is the Hercules of his school.
He is the Cupid of her heart.
He is the father of HR in India.

     viii. As an Adverb with Comparatives.

Example:
The more you crave, the more attractive it would seem.
The more, the merrier.

d. The Indefinite Article is used:

i. In its original numerical sense of 'one'

Example:
Hold on for a minute.
Not a sound was heard
Hundred centimetres make a metre.

ii. In the vague sense of a certain word:

Example:
One fine morning, a pigeon flew to our garden.
During my journey, a man met with an accident.

iii. In the sense of 'any', to single out an individual as the representative of a class:

Example:
A cat is a domestic animal
A child has to respect its parents.
     iv. To make a common noun of a proper noun.

Example:
A Jesus is born again!
An Abdul Kalam was moulded!

e. The article is omitted

i. Before a noun used in its widest sense.

Example:
What kind of treatment is this?
Woman is synonymous with nature.

ii. Before names of materials.

Example:
Copper is a good conductor of electricity.
Steel is an alloy of Iron and Carbon.

iii. Before proper nouns.

Example:
Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh.
Sita was the wife of Rama.

iv. Before abstract nouns used in a general sense.

Example:
Honesty is the best policy.
Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder.
Trust is paramount in a relationship.

     v. In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb followed by its object.

Example:
to give ear, to leave school, to set sail, to catch fire, etc.

vi. In certain phrases consisting of a preposition followed by its object.

Example:
at school, to school, at lunch, at sunrise, by air, etc.

vii. Before the noun following 'kind of'

Example:
What kind of joke is this?
What kind of girl is she?

f. When two or more descriptive adjectives qualifying the same noun are connected by 'and' the Article is used before the first adjective only.

Example:
That is a Greek and Latin speech.
The pink and green gown was lost.

g. When two or more connected nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Article is ordinarily used before the first only.

Example:
We met the Secretary and Chairman of the college.


      h. In expressing a comparison, if two nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Article is used before the first noun only.

Example:
Sachin is a better batsman than bowler.
You are a better speaker than listener.

i. When two or more adjectives qualify different nouns, expressed or understood, the Article is used before each adjective.

Example:
The first and the last question were both difficult.
The pink and the green dress. (Two dresses)
The Spanish and the German language. (Two languages)

Note: Repetition of 'the' is not considered to be necessary when the noun is used in the plural.

Example:
The first and last questions were both difficult.
The pink and green dresses.
The Spanish and German languages.

Note: The second article is often dropped even where the reference is to different individuals or things, provided the thought is not in any way impaired.

Example:
Before you answer the first and last question.

j. When two or more connected nouns refer to different persons or things, the article is used before each.

Example:
We met the Secretary and the Chairman of the college.

Additional information about correct usage of Articles:

In English an 'article' is a word which identifies and limits the power of a noun. In this process there are two kinds. First is the indefinite article i.e., 'a(n)' which introduces something and the second is the definite article i.e., 'the' which refers to the noun introduced by 'a(n)' or the noun already known. Observe the following applications of the article and exercise them with great attention.

1. The difference in usage between 'a' and 'an' is 'a' can precede before the consonant sound  produced by a vowel or a consonant.
  

We are a group, or we are a union.
He is an honourable and honest person.


     
2. In the two columns below, notice where an article is used and not used.
Article used
   
Article not used
Before common and collective nouns

Example:
a man
a committee    

on average, make fun, send word, in debt, at interest, etc.

Example:
On average each of us earned fifty rupees a day  (not: on an average)
after 'to be'

Example:
He is a student here

 -with : hundred, thousand, half, dozen, headache, sore throat, bad cold severe pain, etc.

Example:
I am afflicted with a bad cold, stay away.

as in : on a large scale, at a loss, as a rule, make an excuse, in a hurry, etc.
                                                                             
                        
- before : nationalities, instruments, organs of body, names of rivers, seas, oceans, etc.

Example:
The pacific is the largest ocean of all.     - before : proper, abstract, material, plural nouns

Example:
Michael is my good friend ( not 'the Michael')
- with : Cinema, Park, Zoo, Theatre, mountains, gulfs, etc.

Example:
Next Sunday shall we go to the Exhibition?     - with : names of - languages, meals, games, diseases, colours, senses, days, months , etc.

Example:
Cholera is a dreadful disease. (not: the cholera)
- in : in the right, in the wrong, in the positive/negative, in the morning/ afternoon/evening, etc.

Example:
Breakfast is eaten in the morning.
e.g: They are of the opinion that she is the bone of contention between them.     - also with : the words - society, nature, future, man, etc.

Example:
There is no one that can really predict
the future. - in : of opinion, in case of, cast anchor, set foot, by name, etc.
                                                         

*Additional information for 'Adjectives': *

*Additional information for 'Adjectives': *

1. 'some' is used in affirmative sentences and 'any' in questions and negative sentences to express quantity.

Example:
I have to buy some fruit for my mother.
He did not say anything to it.
Any more questions regarding this?

It is, however, correct to use 'some' in a question which carries requestive tone.

Example:   
May I have some more sugar in my coffee, please?

    

2. Few vs. Little
    Few denotes number              --     Little denote amount or quantity    
    Few means not many             --     Little means not much, hardly any    
    A few means at least some    --     A little means at least some    
    The few means whatever there is    --  The little means all that is there    
    Other forms: fewer (comparative)  --   Less (comparative) and    
      and fewest (superlative)   --   least (superlative)    


Example:   
Though the question is easy, I feel you are unable to answer it.
There have been fewer accidents in the city in recent times .
Fill the tank with not less than fifty (not less) litres of oil (not fewer).

3. 'Older' is used for persons and things, and 'elder' for the members of a family.

Example:
How can you say that I am older than you?
I am elder to my sister only by two years.
     4. English comparatives and Latin comparatives : English comparative end in '--er' and are therefore followed by 'than' but Latin comparative end in '--or' and cannot be followed by 'than'. Instead 'to' follows them. The Latin comparative is : junior, senior, inferior, superior and prior.

Example:   
This is in no way inferior to that.
Today, it seems, everyone has come prior to me.

In the same way 'elder' (an English comparative) and 'prefer' take 'to' after them.

Example:   
He often prefers coffee to tea.

5. Essentials of comparative Degree: Observe the following examples and note the essentials highlighted.

Example:
Simon is cleverer than any other boy in the class ('any other' is essential to say :  Simon is the cleverest of all boys in the class).

Simon is cleverer than many other boys in the class. ('many other' is essential to say : Simon is not the cleverest boy in the class).


      6. 'Than' should be used with 'no other'

Example:
I have no other objection than this.
No other man than you can do it.

7. Comparison is often wrongly used between uncomparable things.

Example:(1 one is wrong. , 2 one is correct)   
My ideas are better than you.1

Here comparison is made between 'My ideas' and 'you'. But it must be:

My ideas are better than your ideas.(2)
or simply : Yours.

Notice the following example:

People here are more decent than in our town.(1)
People here are more decent than those in our town. 2
     8. Whenever two or more qualities of a person are to be described, all the adjectives describing him must necessarily be in the same degree:

Example:
You are more reserved and simple than your brother  (1)
You are more reserved and simpler than your brother 2

9. The components of a degree must be present when the degree is applied.

Example:   
Can you draw as well, if not better than, I?    1
Can you draw as well as, if not better than, I?   2.

In fact, he looks nicer, though everyone says he is just as nice as I.1
In fact, he looks nicer than me, though everyone says he is just as nice as, I.2

10. Certain adjectives are not eligible for comparison because of their completeness, they remain in the positive degree.

 Example:
This is the most perfect painting I have ever seen till now.1
This is the perfect painting I have ever seen till now. 2

Correct usage of ADJECTIVES:With examples

Correct usage of ADJECTIVES:

a. The Adjective is correctly used with a verb when some quality of the subject, rather than that of the action of the verb, is to be expressed.

Example:
He feels happily.1
He feels happy.2

Her words sound sweetly.1
Her words sound sweet. 2
     Note: If any phrase denoting manner could be substituted, the adverb should be used; but if some part of the verb 'to be' could be employed as a connective, the Adjective is required.

Example:(In this 2 one is correct,1 is wrong)
The woman appeared sudden.1
The woman's sudden appearance gave me a shock.2

The boss spoke angry.1
The angry boss spoke loudly.2

The boss looked angrily.1
The boss looked angry.2

b. The words 'superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, anterior, and posterior,' take 'to' instead of 'than'.

Example:
Swetha is senior than me.1
Swetha is senior to me.2

   
 As a writer of science fiction, Arthur C. Clarke is superior than Isaac Asimov.1
As a writer of science fiction, Arthur C. Clarke is superior to Isaac Asimov.2

c. When a comparison is instituted by means of a Comparative followed by 'than', the noun compared must always be excluded from the class of things with which it is compared, by using 'other' or some such words.

Example:
She is more beautiful than any woman living. ( as this suggests that she is more beautiful than herself, which is absurd)1
She is more beautiful than any other woman living. ( by saying so, she herself is excluded)2

Hercules was stronger than all men.1
Hercules was stronger than all other men.2

     d. 'of any' is often used incorrectly in conjunction with a Superlative.

Example:
She has the softest touch of any woman.1
She has a softer touch than any other woman.2
                      (Or)
No other woman has so soft a touch.

e. One common error with Adjectives is illustrated below:

Example:
The temperature of Ramagundam is more than any other town in India.1
The temperature of Ramagundam is more than that of any other town in India.2

The population of Hyderabad is greater than any other city in Andhra Pradesh.1
The population of Hyderabad is greater than that of any other city in Andhra Pradesh.2


     Of the two currency notes, choose the least.1
Of the two currency notes, choose the lesser.2

m. In a comparison by means of a Superlative, the latter term should include the former.

Example:
The elephant is the strongest of all other herbivorous animals.1
The elephant is the strongest of all herbivorous animals.2

The Himalayas are the tallest of all other mountains.1
The Himalayas are the tallest of all mountains.2

n. Double Comparatives and Superlatives are to be avoided, though their use was once common in English.

Example:
I haven't seen a more costlier set of furniture.1
I haven't seen a costlier set of furniture.2

She is the most dullest student in the class.1
She is the dullest student in the class.2

   
      o. Avoid using 'less' when actually 'fewer' is to be used. 'Less' can refer to quantity only, whereas 'fewer' denotes number.

Example:
No less than thirty students were present in the class.1
No fewer than thirty students were present in the class.2

The shopkeeper does not sell fewer than 100gms of sugar.1
The shopkeeper does not sell less than 100gms of sugar.2

p. 'Older' and 'Oldest' may be said either of persons or of things, while 'elder' and 'eldest' apply to persons only, and are usually, confined to members of the same family.

Example:
Hariram was older than Dhaniram.

This is the eldest of all trees in the garden.1
This is the oldest of all trees in the garden. 2

     Sita is the oldest of the family.1
Sita is the eldest of the family.2

q. 'Few' and 'a few' have different meanings, so they should be used carefully. 'Few' has a negative connotation, and is equivalent to: 'not many, hardly any'. 'A few' has a positive connotation and is equivalent to: 'some'.

Example:   
A few books were given to the students. (Some books)1
Few books were given to the students. (Hardly any books)2

Note: Similarly, 'little', meaning 'not much' and 'a little' meaning 'some, though not much' also should be used carefully.

Example:
A little help would have meant a lot to him.1
He has little hope of succeeding in the exam.2

     r. 'Verbal' is often wrongly used for 'oral'. 'Verbal' means 'of or pertaining to words' and 'oral' means 'delivered by word of mouth, not written'.

Example:
My written statements do not differ much from my verbal statements.1
My written statements do not differ much from my oral statements.2

There are quite a few oral differences in the two paragraphs.1
There are quite a few verbal differences in the two paragraphs.2

Additional information for 'Pronoun':

 Additional information for 'Pronoun':

1. Sequence of Persons: If all the three persons have to be used in a sentence, their order of preference in a normal condition will be as: Second person (you) + third person ((s)he/it/they) + first person (I/we). But if a fault is to be confessed, their order will be like this: first person + second person + third person.

Example:
You, Tony and I must enjoy the equal share of success (Normal condition).
I, you and Tony are to be blamed for the failure of the project (Confession).

In this process the speaker is always the first person who must necessarily say 'we', 'our/ours', 'ourselves', 'us'. And even if the second and the third person go together in a sentence, the first person backs again as the speaker for them and says 'you', 'your/yours' and/or 'yourselves (not: yourself)' (Be careful).

Example:   
1. You, she and I have our own houses but Jack doesn't have any.
2. You and Jane will have to take care of yourselves if I leave for London.

2. Consistency of Person: If a pronoun in the second person 'you' is introduced in a sentence, it must be followed only by its other forms (your/s), yourself, yourselves) to maintain the same person in discussion.

So, mistakes are possible and often made in case of the pronouns in third person like, every, all, each, anyone, somebody, one, etc. Of this kind, singular pronouns like each, any, etc., will usually take masculine gender unless gender discrimination is demanded, or turns a point of discussion.

Example:
Just as you had your day and I had my day, everyone else also will have his day to prove himself.
But, one must be sure of one's facts before making a public accusation.
Somebody has lost his purse here; let's ask him if this is his.
     3. When 'every' or 'each' ---- two different singular nouns joined by 'and', the pronoun to describe them is the third person singular.

Example:   
Don't say: Each girl and each woman always lies about their age.
Say: Each girl and each woman always lies about her age.

4. Pronoun Vs Noun: If a collective noun like jury, government, etc., remains united in its views then  it is singular and is followed only by a singular neuter gender i.e., 'it' and the family. Otherwise it will be followed by a plural neuter gender i.e., 'they' and family.

Example:   
The team is jubilant after its victory.
The team were divided in their opinion about the decisions of the ICC.

      5. Pronoun in Cases:

(A) The pronoun that comes after the phrase 'to be' and the comparative conjunction 'than' must always be in the subjective (or nominative) case.

Example:
It is he that has brought a great change in me.
She plays tennis better than I. (Not : me).

(B) The pronoun that comes after a preposition and after the words 'like' and 'unlike' must always be in its objective (or accusative) case.

Example:
My wife has confidence in me; I don't like lying to her. (not : I, or she)
I have never thought that I can have a son like him. (not : he).



      (C) Five of nine interrogatives in English, are pronouns which stand for different cases. They are:
           
Who     -     denotes persons in the subjective case
Whom     -     denotes persons in the objective case
Whose      -     denotes persons in the possessive case
Which, What     -     denote persons and things in the subjective and objective cases
Example: 
Who do you think is the cleverest among them?
Whom should we consult regarding this?
What caused him to leave her?
Which of them is your choice?

6. Relative Pronoun: a pronoun that describes a noun should be placed immediately after its antecedent otherwise confusion may rise.

Example:   
If it is not Henry, ask someone else whom you do not believe .(wrong)
If it is not Henry, whom you do not believe, ask some one else.(correct)
     7. Relative pronoun 'that': In preference to 'who' or 'which', 'that' is used: after adjectives in superlative degree, after the words  'all', 'any', 'same', 'such', 'only', 'nothing', 'none', and also after interrogatives 'who' and 'which'.

Example:
All that glitters is not gold. (not : which).
The Mahabharath is the best epic that I have ever read. (not : which).

And also when there are two antecedents (a man and an animal/a thing) then the relative pronoun is 'that'.

Example:   
The little boy and his dog which we see everyday have not come today(wrong)
The little boy and his dog that we see everyday have not come today.(correct)

8. 'But', as a relative pronoun often replaces 'who-not' and 'that-not' in negative sentences.

Example:
1. There is no rose that has not a thorn.
    There is no rose but has a thorn.
   


          9. Confusion often takes place incase of certain phrases like 'each other' and 'one another'. The former stands for only two subjects while the latter for more than two.

Example:
John and Jane like each other a lot.
In our colony we help one another in times of difficulty.

10. Reflexive pronoun: In case of certain verbs like 'enjoy', 'apply', 'absent', 'avail', 'resign', 'acquit', 'drive', 'pride', 'exert', the object for them is always a reflexive pronoun which is formed by adding 'self' to 'my', 'your', 'him', 'her', 'it' and 'selves' to 'our', 'your'  and 'them'.

Example:
Nobody helped him; he availed himself of the opportunity and got a job.
We enjoy ourselves a lot every Sunday evening.

 11. When two or more singular nouns are joined by 'either...or', 'neither...nor', or 'or', the pronoun coming after them is a singular.

Example:
Either David or Jack will lend us his car. (not : their).
Neither Elizabeth nor Jessica prides herself on being rich. (not : themselves).

However if a singular noun and a plural noun are joined by 'or' or 'nor', the pronoun coming after them is plural.

Example:   
Neither the management nor the workers are compromising on their demands.

12. 'Let' has to be followed by a pronoun in the objective case.

Example:
Let us not stay here for a long time.
Let him make his own decision.
   
      13. Pronouns joined by 'and' must be in the same pronoun case.

Example:   
He and myself are colleagues
He and I are colleagues

She and him are wife and husband
She and he are wife and husband

Additional examples of Noun

  e. When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun, we should ensure that the verb agrees in number and person with the antecedent of the relative.

Example:
This is one of the most encouraging achievements that has happened this quarter.
This is one of the most encouraging achievements that have happened this quarter.

She is one of the most talented girls that has enrolled in this course.
She is one of the most talented girls that have enrolled in this course.

f. When one noun is qualified by two possessive nouns both must have the possessive sign, unless joint possession is indicated.

Example:
Marks and Spencer's Cigars.
Ravi's and Shekhar's bags are lying in the balcony.

     g. While referring to 'anybody, everybody, everyone, anyone, each,' etc., the pronoun of the masculine or the feminine gender is used according to the context.

Example:
He is willing to assist everyone of the girls in the class with their homework.
He is willing to assist everyone of the girls in the class with her homework.

Note: When the gender is not specified, the pronoun of the masculine gender can be used as there is no singular person of the third person to represent both male and female.

Example:
If anyone can answer this question, let him raise his hand.
Anyone can solve this puzzle if he concentrates.
Each must try his best.
Everybody should put in his full effort.

     h. In conversation, the interrogative 'who' is often used for 'whom' even by educated people.
Example:
'Who did you meet?' instead of saying, 'Whom did you meet?' But in the written form, it is advisable to use the correct form.

Example:
He is the man whom they thought was dead.
He is the man who they thought was dead.

There are some whom I think are hardworking.
There are some who I think are hardworking.

Whom do you wish to meet?
Who do you wish to meet?

Whom do you believe her to be?
Who do you believe her to be?

i. When two nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, the apostrophe with 's' is added to the last noun only.
Example:
This is my brother, the doctor's office.
His cousin Ravinder's watch has been found here.
   
      j. A pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in person, number and gender.
Example:
All students must do his homework.
All students must do their homework.

Every boy must do their homework.
Every boy must do his homework.

Each of the women expressed their own beliefs.
Each of the women expressed her own beliefs.

k. Each, either, and neither are distributive pronouns calling attention to the individuals forming a collection, and must accordingly be followed by verbs in the singular.
Example:
Each of the boys have done well.
Each of the boys has done well.

Each of the women were paid a rupee.
Each of the women was paid a rupee.

Either of the methods help you to get the solution.
Either of the methods helps you to get the solution.

Neither of the brothers were found to be honest.
Neither of the brothers was found to be honest.

l. Possessive Case should be used only in the following situations:

a.    Names of living beings and personified things:

Example:
nature's principles, the minister's residence, the elephant's trunk.

b. A few commonly used phrases.

Example:
For god's sake; out of harm's way; for goodness' sake.

c.    Nouns of space or time denoting an amount of something.

Example: A week's wages; in a month's time.
   

      m. The case of a pronoun following 'than' or 'as' is determined by mentally supplying the verb; the verb is understood or implied.

Example:
She is cleverer than he ('is' is understood)
Geetha rides better than I ('do' is understood)
She loves me more than I ('love her' is understood)
They praise her as much as ('they praise' is understood) me.

n. Anyone should be used when more than two persons or things are spoken of.

Example:
He was more hardworking than either of his ten classmates.
He was more hardworking than anyone of his ten classmates.

o. The relative pronoun is sometimes wrongly omitted when it is the Subject of the clause.

Example:
She has a perseverance would carry her through anything.
She has a perseverance that would carry her through anything.

     p. The use of 'same' as a substitute for the personal pronoun should be avoided.

Example:   
After you have completed reading the book, please return the same to me.
After you have completed reading the book, please return it to me.

q. A pronoun is sometimes inserted where it is not required.

Example:
The candidate, being a former student of this college, he is eligible for additional benefits.
The candidate, being a former student of this college, is eligible for additional benefits.

Sharmila, being my friend, she shall be given better treatment.
Sharmila, being my friend, shall be given better treatment.

     r. A noun or pronoun in the Possessive case should not be used as the antecedent to a relative pronoun.

Example:
Do not neglect his efforts, who made this event possible.
Do not neglect the efforts of him who made this event possible.

s. When the antecedent is 'same' the consequent should be 'as' or 'that', when the antecedent is 'such', the consequent should be 'as'.

Example:
That is the same bus that (or as) they saw last week.
We went to the same movie that you did.
Her result was such as we expected it to be


Note: However, to express "Nouns Always Singular" in their plural forms, usually 'a piece', 'a bit', 'an item', 'word', 'a leaf', etc.  are used before them.

Example:
"Excuse me Sir, here is a piece of information for you", said the receptionist.
Today I had only two slices of bread for breakfast.

2. Certain nouns like foot, meter, pair, score, dozen, had, year, hundred, thousand, million remain unchanged in number though a numeral precedes them.
Example:
It is a five-kilo meter distance from here (not : meters)
We have agreed on a ten million project (not : millions)

3. Some nouns give one meaning in their singular forms and a different meaning in  their plural forms.

Example:   
1. (a) He holds you in the greatest respect (= regard).
    (b) If you go to see her, please offer my respects to her (= compliments).

2. (a) Many are looking for work (= job).
    (b) There has been an accident at the fireworks (= factories).

	Note:- the following words do not change in to the plural number:
	Singular        Plural   (i) advice, counsel advice, counsel   (ii) air, atmosphere air, atmosphere   (iii) authority, command authority, command   (iv) good, wise good, wise   (v)  iron, metal iron, metal   (vi)  content, satisfaction content, satisfaction   (vii) physics, medicine physics, medicine   (viii) earning, income earning, income   (ix) quarter, one fourth quarter, one fourth
	4. Un English Nouns: The forms of certain nouns are often wrongly used as:
	Example: 1. Lectureship is the lowest teaching grade at a college or university. 2. The position of a Lecturer is the lowest teaching grade at a college or university. 2. Mr. George is not a French teacher.     Mr. George is not a teacher of French. Also say: 'free studentship', not 'free ship', 'boarding house', 'not boarding', 'members of the family', not 'family members', 'cousin', not 'cousin brother or sister', etc. 5. Mistakes are often made when the differences of some nouns are not clearly understood. Example: 1. (cost, price) Cost: the value of production Price: the value paid or given by a customer The margin is not high though the cost is low. I could not afford it at such a price.       Example: 2. (habit, custom) Habit: an individual's usual practice of something. Custom: if a group of individuals in the name of sect or society practices something. Habit: I do not have the habit of smoking after meals. Custom: It is not our custom to fast on Sunday. And justify the following pairs of nouns with their meanings in your sentences. (cause, reason)   = (produces a result, explains a result) (man, gentleman) = (human being, a man of honour) (men, people)      = (plural of man, persons) (shade, shadow)  = (---- from the sun, the shade of a distinct object) (house, home)     = (a building, a building to live in) (customer, client) = (one who buys, one who receives service)  6. Proper, material or abstract nouns do not by nature, have plural forms unless they are used as common nouns. Example: It takes a couple of hours to cross the woods (= forest). Food for lunch can be carried in ten tins (= cans). 7. 'One of' means 'a part of' something which must always be plural. Example: 'He is one of my cousins.' (not : cousin). 'This is one of the cities I have visited till now (not : city).

Additional Information for 'Noun'

	1. Noun 'n' Number	Nouns always Singular therefore take a sl. Verb	Nouns always Plural therefore take a pl. Verb	Nouns despite Singular take a pl. Verb	Nouns - Singular or Plural depending on the Meaning
	Comment	These nouns take only a singular verb because of their nature of boundlessness, countlessness, immeasurability or inexhaustibility.	These nouns take a plural verb because of their basic plural nature.	These nouns always take a plural verb because they make a particular kind or category of things as a whole.	Whenever these nouns indicate division or individual contribution, they take a plural verb, otherwise take a singular verb.
	Don't say Example 1. Say	Furnitures are put into a house or an office to make it suitable for living in or working in.	Scissors does not cut through wire.	Don't go out after nine the police patrol at night.	a) The government is likely to welcome the proposal. (b) The government have many opinions about the proposal.
		Furniture is put into a house or an office to make it suitable for living in or working in.	Scissors do not cut through wire.	Don't go out after nine the police patrols at night.
	Don't say: Example 2: Say:	The Mathematics learnt by him have not at all helped me do well in the test.	Where is my spectacles?	If Peasantry is neglected, the economy of a state cannot prosper.	(a) The audience was enthusiastic on the opening night of the play. (b) Audience usually turn up with different tastes.
		The Mathematics learnt by him has not at all helped me do well in the test.	Where are my spectacles?	If peasantry are neglected, the economy of a state cannot prosper.

 

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	: I. The Noun
	1. Noun 'n' Number	Nouns always Singular therefore take a Singular Verb	Nouns always Plural therefore take a Plural Verb	Nouns despite Singular take a Plural Verb	Nouns - Singular or Plural depending on the meaning
	Group of Nouns	abuse advice athletics bedding bread burnings character classics damage ethics fish fruit fuel furniture gallows gram grass hair information innings knowledge luggage machinery mathematics mischief money news physics poetry progress repair rice scenery stationery thunder lightning and also all “---ies” ending nouns.	alms annals billiards clothes chattels drafts draughts goods measles pants (or pantaloons) premises scissors thanks kidings krousers, etc.	artillery cattle clergy's company gentry peasantry people police vermin, etc	audience committee commission government jury orchestra public team, etc

PARTS OF SPEECH (In detail with Examples)

FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Most of the Competitive Tests today comprise of questions based on the correct usage of words as different parts of speech. "Spotting Errors" is a section containing questions of this type. You will be required to read a given sentence in the question and identify which part of the sentence contains an error. In order to do this, you should be aware of the correct usage of words as different parts of speech. And to be able to do that, you should have a clear understanding of the different parts of speech. Let us first discuss the various parts of speech and then look at their correct usage.

According to the work they do in a sentence, words are classified into different kinds, called the Parts of Speech. So, unless we use a word in a particular sentence, it will be meaningless to classify it into any part of speech.

     There are eight Parts of Speech. They are:

1. Noun
2. Pronoun
3. Verb
4. Adverb
5. Adjective
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Interjection
(Observe that the corresponding parts of speech in the following example sentences are highlighted in colour).

1. Noun: It is a word used as the name of a person, place, thing or animal (bird). The word 'thing' includes all tangible and intangible things.
Example:
Ravichandra is an honest man.
Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh.
That chair is a new one.
Her honesty earned her great reputation.
Cows eat grass.
An owl can see during the night.

2. Adjective: It is a word used to describe a noun.

Example:
She is a beautiful woman.
This is a difficult question.
There are hundred pages in this book.

3. Pronoun: It is a word used instead of a noun.

Example:
Sirisha passed the exam because she worked hard.
I want my books to remain where I leave them.

4. Verb: It is a word used to describe an action done by a noun.

Example:
The boy asked me to clarify his doubts.
Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh.
It usually rains from August to December in Karnataka.

5. Adverb: It is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Example:
He speaks loudly.
She is a very beautiful woman.
They ran out quite slowly.

     6. Preposition: It is a word used to indicate how a noun or pronoun stands with respect to something else.
Example:
Birds fly in the air.
The child hid under the table.
She is afraid of rats.

7. Conjunction: It is a word used to join a set of words or sentences.
Example:
Latha and Geetha are sisters.
He worked hard but failed in the exam.

8. Interjection: It is a word used to express sudden feelings.
Example:
Eureka! I found it.
Oh! That's a great shot.
Hurrah! We have won the match.

Note:
a. As words are classified into the different parts of speech based on the work they do in a sentence, we cannot classify a word into the right parts of speech unless it is used in a sentence.
b. Remember that the same word may be used as different parts of speech in different sentences.

     Examples of how words can be used as different parts of speech.

Example:
Water is precious, we shouldn't waste it. (Noun)
I bought a water gun for my son. (Adjective)
Please water the plants everyday. (Verb)

1.    Agreement of the Verb with the Subject: A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.
Often, the verb is made to agree in number with a noun near it instead of with its proper subject.
Example:
The quality of the oranges were not good.
The quality of the oranges was not good.

My fluency in foreign languages are exceptional.
My fluency in foreign languages is exceptional.

There is two reasons for this.
There are two reasons for this.

     b. For some nouns, which are plural in form, but singular in meaning, a singular verb should be used.

Example: 
Economics are a difficult subject.
Economics is a difficult subject.

The news are encouraging.
The news is encouraging.

The wages of hard work are success.
The wages of hard work is success.

Logistics have been part of his curriculum.
Logistics has been part of his curriculum.

     c. For some nouns, which are singular in form, but plural in meaning, a plural verb should be used.
Example:
As per the shopkeeper, five dozen costs eighty rupees.
As per the shopkeeper, five dozen cost eighty rupees.

d. A singular verb should be used with a Collective noun when the collection is thought of as one whole. A plural verb should be used with a Collective noun when the individuals of which it is composed are thought of.

Example:
The Committee have submitted their findings.
The Committee has submitted its findings.

The Committee is divided on one important issue. 
The Committee are divided on one important issue.

e. When a plural noun is a proper name for some single object or some collective unit, a singular verb should be used.

Example:
Gulliver's Travels are a favourite of children.
Gulliver's Travels is a favourite of children.
   


      The United Arab Emirates are an attractive location for job opportunities today.
The United Arab Emirates is an attractive location for job opportunities today.

Gandhiji's Experiments with Truth are an inspiring book.
Gandhiji's Experiements with Truth is an inspiring book.

f. When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole, a singular verb is generally used.
Example:
Thousand grams are a kilogram.
Thousand grams is a kilogram.

One hundred centimetres are equal to one metre.
One hundred centimetres is equal to one metre.

Two hundred kilometres are a long distance.
Two hundred kilometres is a long distance.

Eighty thousand rupees are a large sum of money.
Eighty thousand rupees is a large sum of money.

g. For two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by 'and' a plural verb should be used.
Example:
Copper and Aluminium is good conductor of electricity.
Copper and Aluminium are good conductors of electricity.

She and I was studying.
She and I were studying.

Is your brother and sister coming to the party?
Are your brother and sister coming to the party?

Hard work and success goes hand in hand.
Hard work and success go hand in hand. 

Note: In this case, if the nouns refer to the same person or thing, then a singular verb should be used.

Example:
Bread and butter are his only food. 
Bread and butter is his only food.  

     The patriot and leader are now recognized.
The patriot and leader is now recognized.

The horse and carriage are at the entrance.
The horse and carriage is at the entrance.

Time and tide waits for none.
Time and tide wait for none.

h. 'None', though properly singular, commonly goes with a plural verb.

Example:
None is so miserable as those who accept failure.
None are so miserable as those who accept failure.

Chinese are amongst the most hard working of all people in the
world; none puts more effort in achieving what they want.

Chinese are amongst the most hard working of all people in the
world; none put more effort in achieving what they want.

i. For two nouns qualified by each or every, even though connected by 'and', a singular verb should be used.

Example:   
Every man and woman in the room were asked to vote.
Every man and woman in the room was asked to vote.

Each of the girls in the class were asked to dance.
Each of the girls in the class was asked to dance.

j. Words joined to a singular subject by 'with, as well as', etc., are parenthetical, and hence a singular verb should be used.
Example:
The vehicle, with its accessories, were insured.
The vehicle, with its accessories, was insured.

Spanish, as well as German, are taught at Career Campus.
Spanish, as well as German, is taught at Career Campus.

     The submarine, with its crew, were found.
The submarine, with its crew, was found.

The Minister, with his MLAs, are required to participate.
The Minister, with his MLAs, is required to participate.

k. For two or more singular subjects connected by 'or' or 'nor', a singular verb should be used.
Example:
Either she or her friend have attended the meeting.
Either she or her friend has attended the meeting.

Neither Siraj nor his brother were found successful.
Neither Siraj nor his brother was found successful.


      Note: When one of the subjects is joined by 'or' or 'nor' is plural, a plural verb must be used, and the plural subject should be placed nearest the verb.

Example:   
Neither Krishna nor his friends wants to attend the party.
Neither Krishna nor his friends want to attend the party.

Either Ram or his brothers has done the deed.
Either Ram or his brothers have done the deed.

l.When the subjects joined by 'or' or 'nor' are of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearer.
Example:
Neither you nor I are to blame.
Neither you nor I am to be blame.

Either she or he have to complete the task.
Either she or he has to complete the task.

     Note: It is suggested that the above usage be avoided and the following used:

Example:
You are not to be blamed nor am I.
She has to complete the task, or else he has to.

m. Either, neither, each, everyone, many a, must be followed by a singular verb.
Example:
Either of the questions have to be answered.
Either of the questions has to be answered.

Neither of the students are good at Arithmetic.
Neither of the students is good at Arithmetic. 

Each of these plants are available in our nursery.
Each of these plants is available in our nursery.

Every one of the counseling rooms are full.
Every one of the counseling rooms is full.

     Many a man have succeeded in this task.
Many a man has succeeded in this task.

n. For two nouns qualified by each or every, even though connected by 'and', a singular verb should be used.

Examples:
Each adult and every child were required to buy a ticket.
Each adult and every child was required to buy a ticket.

o. 'Pains' and 'means' take either the singular or the plural verb, but the usage must be consistent.
Examples:
The means used by them is enough.
All possible means have been tried.
Great pains have been taken by them to reach the top.
Much pain has been taken by them to reach the top.

Correct usage of Nouns and Pronouns   

a.The Object of a Verb or of a Preposition, when it is a Pronoun, should be in the Objective form:

Example:
There is a lot of difference between you and I.
There is a lot of difference between you and me.

The teacher allowed Lalitha and I to leave the class early.
The teacher allowed Lalitha and me to leave the class early.

Let you and I talk it out.
Let you and me talk it out.

Her, who had been the most important person in his life, has now begun to hate he the most.
She, who had been the most important person in his life, has now begun to hate him the most.

A pronoun in its objective form (him, he, me) should be used as an object of a verb or a preposition.

Her, who appeared so considerate, turned out to be cruel.
She, who appeared so considerate, turned out to be cruel.


      b. None can be used in the singular or plural as the situation and meaning demands.
Example:
Do you have any letters for me?
No, there is none for you.
No, there are none for you.

Did you bring me a letter?   
No, there were none for you.
No, there was none for you.

Note: When the singular or plural equally expresses the sense, a plural verb is commonly used.

Example:
None of his books are well known.
None, but fools have accepted that proposal.

c. The complement of the verb 'to be', when it is expressed by a pronoun, should be in the nominative form.

Example:
It was her.
It was she.
   
      If I were him, I wouldn't go ahead.
If I were he, I wouldn't go ahead.

It was me that completed the task first.
It was I that completed the task first.

Note: 'It's me' is used even by people well exposed to the English language and is considered to be idiomatic English.

d. The indefinite pronoun 'one' should be used throughout, if it is used at all.
Example:
One should learn to sharpen his own skills.
One should learn to sharpen one's own skills.

One can always learn from his mistakes.
One can always learn from one's mistakes.